The word Gourmet is used to refer to the fancier grade, cut, or quality of many of the foods and beverages we consume. Gourmet foods and drinks have long been associated as the regular fare for the rich and famous who can afford the higher pricing that often accompanies many of these finer food and beverage versions. Coffee is a beverage that has been available in cheap, regular and gourmet versions for a long time and the consumption rate of coffee among people from around the world continues to increase every year. Gourmet coffee may have once only been served in the finest dining establishments and found being served mostly in the homes of the upper class, but gourmet coffee is widely available and affordable to a variety of people and is found in a variety of settings today.
Coffee is made from coffee beans which are found within the berries that develop and ripen on a number of smaller evergreen bush plant species known as the Coffea plant. After ripening, coffee berries are harvested, and then undergo a processing which also includes drying them. It is the coffee beans that remain after the processing and drying of the coffee berries. The beans are then roasted to various degrees which cause them to change physically and in the tastes they produce. Finally, the coffee beans are grinded down into a fine consistency that is commonly known as coffee grounds, and packaged and shipped to destinations around the world where consumers can buy and brew coffee grounds to make coffee in commercial, hospitality, institutional, and residential settings. Some people prefer to grind their own coffee beans before brewing them for coffee. Packaged coffee beans that have not been ground can be purchased in stores and ground using the grinding mills that are made available in most of the stores selling them, but also with grinding machines in the home.
The two most commercially grown species of the coffea plant that produce the coffee beans used to make the coffee that the world's population consumes, are Robusta and Arabica. Gourmet coffee is made from the top tier coffee beans from the arabica coffea plant. These top tier arabica coffea plants are typically grown at very high altitudes (above 3000ft) with ideal soil and climate conditions. The coffee beans produced have fuller flavors, are more aromatic, and have less caffeine in them than other varieties of coffee beans such as Robustas. The coffee beans of arabica coffea plants grown at lower altitudes are still noted among consumers as having richer flavors than the flavors produced by Robusta coffee beans, but it is only the top tier arabica coffee beans that are considered to be Gourmet, and thereby from which gourmet coffee is derived.
Coffee bean grounds and coffee beans that have not been grinded down need to be stored in air-tight containers and kept cool in order to protect them from losing their flavor. The containers that coffee is typically sold in are not the most ideal for storing coffee for a long period of time. When you arrive home after purchasing coffee grounds at the store, consider transferring the fresh coffee grounds to appropriate storage containers to extend its shelf life and full flavor.
Coffee can be brewed in many ways such as boiling, pressuring, and steeping. Most of us brew our coffee using automatic coffee brewing machines and percolators which use gravity to pull hot water through coffee grounds where the hot water mixed with the oils and essences of the coffee grounds empties into a liquid holding container below. Filters are used to keep coffee granules from being emptied into the carafe or liquid holding container from which the brewed coffee can then be served from because most people do not want to drink the coffee granules. Coffee granules can be very bitter once the flavor able oils and essences have been removed through the brewing process. Plants and flowers love coffee grounds though for anybody who is looking for a greener alternative of what to do with coffee grounds after brewing instead of just throwing them in the trash.
Of course, Gourmet coffee beans are only the beginning to creating a truly gourmet coffee experience for many gourmet coffee drinkers. Some people are quite content with drinking their gourmet coffee black, without adding anything like milk, creamer, sugar or other sweeteners or flavorings, to their coffee. While many others want to enhance their gourmet coffee and drinking experience with tasty additions like milk that is whipped into a froth, sweeteners, and mixing in other flavors like chocolate, vanilla, cinnamon, and mint, to name just a few. Big name coffee chains sell a wide variety of gourmet coffee with different tasty additions and flavors to appeal to gourmet coffee lovers. However, brewing gourmet coffee at home is usually much cheaper, and you can add what you want to your coffee to satisfy your refined, gourmet tastes.
Tuesday, February 9, 2010
A Brief Overview of Gourmet Coffee
History of the Coffee Bean
Whether you call it java, mud or a shot in the arm, an estimated 2 billion cups are consumed every day around the world - making coffee the most popular drink in the world. Coffee today is produced in over 50 countries and is the second most valuable export after oil. And to many of us - it's simply what we need to get us started in the morning.
Coffee is older than most people think - archaeological evidence suggests that humans were enjoying the taste of the coffee berry around a hundred thousand years ago. One legend has it that a goat herder in Ethiopia observed his goats eating coffee berries and he decided to taste them himself - noting the stimulating effect. Shepherds consumed the coffee by grounding the beans and mixing them with animal fat.
By around 600 AD, the coffee bean had made its way to what is now the country of Yemen, where it has been cultivated ever since. From 1000 AD, Arabian traders grew and cultivated the coffee bean on plantations - they called their new concoction qahwa meaning "that which prevents sleep". Arabia controlled the coffee trade for many centuries as they introduced a law that prohibited the exporting of beans that could germinate.
Despite this restriction, the coffee bean somehow found its way throughout the Middle East - to Persia (now Iran), Egypt and parts of Northern Africa. Coffee beans also found their way to the Mysore area of India - where descendants of those original plants flourished until the early 20th century. In many cases, the beans were literally smuggled out of Arabia.
At first, coffee was not enjoyed for its taste, but more as a supplement or source of nutrition. When the coffee bean found its way to Turkey, the Turks began to drink it for its flavor - frequently adding such things as cinnamon or anise. The Turks were also the first to roast the beans over fires and boil the crushed beans in water. And what is generally considered to be the world's first coffee shop was opened in Istanbul - known as Constantinople at the time - in the 15th century.
The Dutch were the first to transport and cultivate coffee beans on a commercial basis. With coffee beans smuggled out of Arabia, they established plantations in Ceylon and one of their colonies - Java. Today, Indonesia is the world's third largest producer of coffee.
The coffee bean was introduced to Europe during the 17th century. At one point, the was more popular than beveragetea in England and was used as an antidote to the widespread alcoholism of the time. Coffee houses sprang up in such places as Vienna, Paris and London, frequented by the wealthy and fashionable. The Austrians are credited with the practice of adding milk and sugar to coffee.
In France, Louis XIV built greenhouses to protect his precious coffee beans from frost. And in the New World, coffee was also a popular drink - the newly formed American colonies declared coffee to be the national drink. Not everybody approved; the Catholics declared coffee should be banned - despite the Pope confessing to being an avid coffee drinker.
Today, there are actually more than 60 varieties of coffee in the world, although the beans used for coffee are one of two types - Robusta and Arabica. Around 75% of coffee beans produced are Arabica and are cultivated in Brazil and Central America. Robusta beans produce a stronger blend of coffee and are cultivated in parts of Asia and Africa as well as Brazil.
Chances are high that your coffee beans come from Brazil, the world's largest producer of coffee. Brazil produces almost 30% of the world's coffee and also has some of the most advanced processing techniques in the world. In 2006, the gross value of coffee production in Brazil was almost 5 billion dollars and the industry employs several million workers.
Coffee isn't usually associated with Asia, but several Asian countries have started to cultivate the coffee bean. In recent years, Vietnam has become a large producer and some of the African coffee producing countries still produce excellent coffee - in particular Kenya and Tanzania
Some countries have also started to cultivate specialized coffee beans - Kenya produces a fruity coffee and Indonesia produces the Kopi Luwak - a coffee bean that has been passed through the digestive system of a civet. And Ethiopia - where the coffee bean was perhaps first discovered - is home to a bean that produces a coffee flavored with chocolate, ginger and orange.
So whether you prefer your coffee beans with milk, with sugar, strong or with no caffeine - take a moment and enjoy a cup of the world's most popular drink.
Africa Coffee Production Skyrockets
Africa has taken great pride and strides to improve their farming. They are finally seeing results in their coffee. Hoepfully they will see the same results in their food production. The gourmet coffee is a homerun.
This year’s coffee report calls for major production improvement and output record levels for African coffee producing countries. The African output will so far exceed expected output that it will also cause the world’s production to exceed expectant levels.
Still will the excess coffee the wholesale prices continue to increase. However as demand is not able to keep up with supply look for the coffee prices to plummet shortly. Also the quality of the African coffee is far less that its South American counterparts. Many consider Costa Rica, Brazil and Columbia to have the finest coffee in the world. The Africa coffee is not even close in terms of quantity or quality and much of the African coffee is a Robusta bean. The Latin America coffee countries only produce Arabica bean which is a far superior bean. The African coffees are also lacking in the production of certified organic coffee.
World coffee production in the current season will be greater than previously expected and will set a record, the Agriculture Department said today. In its weekly report on world agriculture, the FDA department put the global coffee crop at over 96 million bags, up 1.3 million from the previous forecast and over ten percent or approximately over 12 million bags above last year's crop.
Improved prospects in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, the leading coffee-growing countries were the main factor in the higher estimate, the report said. Despite large world coffee supplies, several major retailers have raised prices in recent months because of actions taken under the International Coffee Agreement to prop up prices.
Kenya and Nigeria commented that short term agriculture programs were finally taking effect and helping with production. Other cited factors included improved water, water supply and consistent water along with improved farming techniques and farming co-ops. The farming co-ops allowed farmers to share resources and best practices which allowed much improvement in production levels.
Tradition of Teatime
While most associate tea time with England, the practice of tea drinking actually began in France nearly twenty-two years before tea was even introduced in England. King Charles II, who ruled England in the seventeenth century, brought with him a Portuguese bride and a firm tea drinking tradition. As the king and queen were tea drinkers, a novelty in England at the time, the tradition immediately became popular among the wealthy.
Tea replaced ale as the official beverage in England in very short order. When Queen Anne, a successor to King Charles II, chose tea over ale for her morning drink, she set a new standard in all of England. Also during the eighteenth century, tea became the customary drink with an evening meal to satisfy the hunger and thirst of those working during the Industrial Revolution.
High Tea
High tea was introduced to England in the eighteenth century. Traditionally only two meals were eaten in most households - breakfast and dinner. Dinner was served late in the evening. However, when workers came home from the more industrialized labors, they were more than ready for a full serving of breads, meat, cheeses and such. These were served on a high table along with tea much like a dinner. Thus, the late afternoon meal was called high tea. Today, high tea is mistakenly identified as a formal tea in the afternoon along with pastries, but those delicacies would never have been found in a true high tea - they wouldn't be hearty enough.
Teatime
Anna Maria Stanhope, the Duchess of Bedford, is credited with having begun afternoon teatime. Once a lady-in-waiting to Queen Victoria, Anne began to suffer a "sinking feeling" in her stomach around four o'clock in the afternoon as the noon meal had become skimpier. To help her make it from the noon meal to the late formal dinner, Anne first asked servants to sneak in a pot of tea and bread.
Later, as she became more comfortable with her late afternoon meal, Anne began asking friends to join her in her rooms at Belvoir Castle around five o'clock in the afternoon. She followed the traditional European tea service format and served a collection of small cakes, bread and butter sandwiches, sweets and tea.
When she returned to London, the Duchess had enjoyed her summer treat so much that she continued the practice by inviting friends to visit for "tea and a walk in the fields." Other noblewoman soon took up the practice of serving a light afternoon meal and the true teatime was born.
Low Tea
Because the teatime of nobles is a more casual affair than the high tea of workers, it was termed "low tea." This is because the tea and delicacies were served from low tables such as a coffee or end table rather than on a high dining table. Low tea was regularly enjoyed by the wealthy for centuries. Dinner was served late in the evening and was a truly formal affair. Today, many of the fine tea houses in North America serving "high tea" are in fact serving in the authentic style of "low tea."
Teas and Soirees History
So long as there has been tea, there have been tea "events." Thousands of years ago, the Chinese monk Lu Yu gave form and structure to Chinese tea preparation and drinking. This was just the beginning of the formality of tea.
Japanese Tea Ceremonies
In Japan, tea was introduced around 800 AD. Buddhist Priest Yeisei brought the beverage to the country, and had seen the benefits of a tea ceremony on religious ceremonies and activities including meditation. Thanks to his influence, tea spread rapidly through monasteries and royalty. Soon, drinking tea was elevated to a true art form still used today.
The Japanese Tea Ceremony is a formalized preparation and serving of tea. To perform the tea ceremony in Japan, one must have years of training to achieve the right level of grace, charm and manners. Over the years, the official hostesses of Japan, the geisha, became specialize in the tea ceremony. Tea houses opened as well to host the events.
Tea Gardens
As tea circumnavigated the globe, tea gardens opened in Europe. The Portuguese introduced tea to the Dutch, and through trade, the Dutch brought the tea to France, Holland and the Baltic countries. First a privilege only the wealthy could afford, tea eventually became a common drink in taverns served on garden tables. The tea garden was introduced.
Afternoon Tea
Tea made its way to England in the 1650s. It wasn't long after that the Duchess of Bedford, much enamored with tea, introduced the country to a third meal. Prior to tea time, only breakfast and dinner had been served. The Duchess invited friends over in the afternoons for tea time and a walk. The concept caught on quickly and soon many of the noblewomen had adopted tea time.
Tea was served in a sterling tea service and poured in to fine porcelain from China. As tea became less expensive, tea time was adopted among all levels of society. Nobles enjoyed "low tea" which was tea served with delicacies while peasants and others enjoyed "high tea" which included a full meal along with tea. Tea gardens soon followed which were the first public area where mixing social classes was considered acceptable.
Tea Rooms and Tea Dances
During the Victorian era, tea was served in many of the finest establishments in both England and America. These tea rooms, often contained within fine hotels or other buildings, were frequented by ladies and their gentlemen as a means to visit acceptably during the afternoon.
By 1910, dancing had become the craze in America, and rather than simply serving tea in the afternoons, tea dances were held in tea rooms and other locations so that young people could meet, converse, enjoy tea and, of course, dance! Today, there are many fine tea rooms offering tea services although dances are not common. Tea time is still very much observed in both North America and the UK, although it is observed more universally in the UK. Tea parties and afternoon teas are still held for special occasions such as baby or wedding showers, birthday parties and other feminine gathering.
Japanese Tea Ceremony
In Japan, serving tea has been elevated to a style of ceremony that takes years to perfect. The Japanese tea ceremony dates back hundreds of years. Over the years, the tea ceremony has come to include four principles that are still at the heart of the ceremony today. Harmony, respect, purity and tranquility are all essential parts of the customary and elaborate tea ceremony performed today both in Japan and around the world.
Elements of the Tea Ceremony
The tea ceremony is an ritualized serving of matcha, or powdered green tea, to guests. There are three primary schools when it comes to the ceremony, each with their own rituals and elements. The most common ceremonies are the Omotesenke and Urasenke, with the Urasenke being performed most often, particularly outside of Japan.
The ceremony is formal, so the attire of the host and guests should be formal as well. The host or hostess should be garbed in an authentic kimono and guests should be wearing a kimono or formal wear. Guests to a tea ceremony must be knowledgeable about the rituals and customs the ceremony includes as to participate properly.
Tea Ceremony Locations
The location of a tea ceremony varies. The ceremony might be held outside or inside. In an outside ceremony seating is provided for guests and the ceremony often is drawn out. The more important the guests, the more likely the ceremony will be held inside. Tea ceremonies can be held inside a tea room or a full tea house. A tea room will be part of an existing home or building while a tea house is a separate structure often designed with well-tended gardens.
In a ceremony held in a tea house, the guests wait in the garden until called into the house by the host. Upon entering the house, guests purify themselves by washing their hands and rinsing their mouths. Shoes are removed and guests are seating in order of importance.
The Ceremony
Once guests are seated, the host builds a charcoal fire in a prescribed way to heat the water to make the tea. A meal may be served or if no meal, light sweets are enjoyed by guests. When the tea is prepared, the guest may come forward to take the bowl or the bowl will be brought to the most prestigious guest. Conversation is minimal as the guests should be enjoying the stillness and the sounds and smells of incense and the tea as well as the simplistic decorations of the house.
The host and guest will bow before the guest rotates the bowl slightly to avoid drinking from the front and takes a sip. He bows, raises the bowl as a sign of respect and speaks a prescribed message. The guest takes a few more sips, wipes the rim clean, rotates the bowl back to the original position and passes it to the next guest.
Each guest repeats the procedure until the bowl is returned to the host. Ordinarily a thick tea is served formally followed by a thin tea. The thin tea is served in the same fashion, but the atmosphere is decidedly more casual.
Following the tea, the host will clean the utensils used to create the tea in a customary way. The guest of honor will ask the host if he was view the utensils. The items used in the ceremony are passed around the guests who praise them lavishly and items are handled with a piece of brocade cloth. The guests are extremely careful as many ceremonious items are priceless antiques.
Finally, the items are replaced and guests leave the house. The host bows at the door and the ceremony is complete. A full ceremony complete with meal and many guests can take up to four hours.
Thursday, February 4, 2010
Clipper Ships & The American Tea Trade; American Tea Inventions; Favorite Tea Books
Clipper Ships and the American Tea Trade
By the 1850s, American clipper ships were importing tea directly from China. In the wake of the British East India Company’s downfall and the repeal of the Navigation Acts, which dictated that all tea must be shipped directly from England to colonist ports, clipper ships became the preferred method for transporting tea. Built for speed, these graceful and sleek vessels with three masts easily outpaced trading ships. British and Americans clippers raced back and forth between China and their home ports, carrying the best teas for auction.
American Tea Inventions
During the 19th century, tea drinking played an important role in social life—from tea parties to afternoon tea—in both England and America. New tea traditions began to develop in America as the beverage’s popularity grew.
The Tea Bag The original tea bags were hand-made, hand-stitched muslin or silk bags. Patents for tea bags exist as early as 1903 (see sketch at right). However, Thomas Sullivan, a tea merchant from New York, is often credited with creating the first commercially successful tea bag concept. He created the pouches to send samples of tea to commercial customers, and they were a big hit. Iced Tea Iced tea originated in 1904 at the World’s Fair in St. Louis. A tea merchant and plantation owner from abroad had intended to provide visitors with free hot tea samples. Due to the unusually hot weather, it was not a big hit. |  The schematic for an early tea bag, or “tea leaf holder.” |
To promote sales, he asked a nearby ice cream vendor for some ice. The American iced tea tradition was born when he dumped the ice into the hot brewed tea.
Tea is the world’s most popular beverage, after water. In the United States, it is fifth in popularity, following water, coffee, soft drinks and juice; although, as so many foods have evolved, it is bottled iced tea sales that make up about 80% of the U.S. tea market. Despite the growing interest in fine tea, grab-and-go bottled tea is likely to remain on top.
Sources: Answers.com, MightyLeaf.com, Wikipedia, Kendra Wilhelm
Favorite Tea Books: Steep Like A Pro
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| The Tea Companion—A Connoisseur’s Guide: An authoritative guide to understanding, purchasing and serving fine tea. Click here for more information. | The London Ritz Book of Afternoon Tea: Capture the essence of a traditional British tea. Click here for more information. | Let’s Have A Tea Party: Surprise a young dame with a tea party primer. Click here for more information. |
Tea Is Served
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| Modern Teapot: Bring your tea into the 21st century with this modern teapot. Click here for more information. | Stainless Steel Teaspoons: An elegant way to stir and sip your tea. Click here for more information. | Beaker Teacups: These classic-modern beaker style teacups add an edge to this historic beverage. Click here for more information. |
Afternoon Tea Dances
Afternoon Tea & Tea Dances
Anna Maria Russell, the seventh Duchess of Bedford, introduced the concept of afternoon tea one summer in the early 1840s, at her country estate. English high society didn’t dine until 8:30 or 9 p.m.—even later in the summer—and she needed something to tide her over during the stretch between what was then a light lunch and dinner. To quell the “hungries,” she ordered her maid to bring her what we would call a snack—a small meal of bread, butter, cakes and tarts and a pot of tea—at 4 p.m. daily. It was brought secretly to her sitting room, as incremental eating was unseemly for a royal.
She soon asked friends to join her—gingerly, unsure of how her extra meal would be perceived. Her friends were just as enthusiastic. When Anna Maria returned to Mayfair in the fall, she sent invitations for friends to join her for tea and a walk, and the small meal between lunch and dinner became popular. Over time, “afternoon tea*” became an elaborate social and gustatory affair with sweet and savory delicacies, special “tea cakes,” and even tea gowns to bridge the fashion between casual afternoon and formal evening dress. As tea was expensive, it was kept in a locked chest, and the lady of the house kept the key with her. | We can thank the custom of afternoon tea and tea parties to Anna, Seventh Duchess of Bedford—a lady who refused to wait for dinner. |
*Americans often confuse afternoon tea with high tea. High Tea is a hearty working class evening meal, generally served around 6 p.m. It generally includes roast beef or leg of lamb, pastry or custard for dessert, and tea. Although it sounds similar, high tea is a world away from the fashionable circles of afternoon tea.
Anna introduced the concept of tea to Queen Victoria, her lifelong friend. Anna’s brother, Viscount Petersham, was such a connoisseur of tea that his sitting room was said to resemble a tea shop.
If you’re near Bedfordshire, England, take a trip to the ancestral estate, Woburn Abbey, where you can take tea in Anna Maria’s own Blue Drawing Room, below.
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| The Blue Drawing Room at Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire, England: the birthplace of afternoon tea. Photo courtesy Woburn.co.uk. |
Tea Becomes The Social Convention
In 1842, a well-known actress named Fanny Kemble first heard of afternoon tea, and did not believe the custom had been practiced prior to that date. Within a few years, a complex set of rules and etiquette developed surrounding the social custom of women visiting each other for tea.
In the 1840s, upper middle class and upper class women commonly held at-home teas. Each chose a permanent day of the week to hold at-home hours, and would then send announcements to friends, relatives and acquaintances. Unless regrets were sent, it was expected that invitees would attend. On that particular day of the week, she would remain at home all day to receive visitors. Conversation, after the model of the French salon, was the primary entertainment. Tea, cakes and finger sandwiches were served. There was at least one person holding an at-home day on any given day, the social fabric of the community was established, and most women saw each other almost every day at different houses.
The hostess would announce when tea was served, and would take a seat at one end of the table to pour tea for her guests. The eldest daughter of the household, or the closest friend of the hostess, poured coffee or hot chocolate. The hostess also added the sugar and milk or lemon to the tea per the guest’s preference. Why not a buffet? Tea and sugar were more common and affordable by the 1800s, but as consumable luxuries they still represented wealth and were controlled by the hostess (tea was stored in locked tea caddies to which only the woman of the household held the key, and did not become widely available and affordable to the working classes until the middle to late nineteenth century, with the introduction of cheap black tea from Sri Lanka). The upper classes, wealthy enough to hire servants, had them pour the tea, and guests could add their own sugar, milk or lemon. By releasing control over dispensing tea and sugar, the upper classes demonstrated their wealth and ability to buy as much of these items as desired.
The Tea Dance
In 1919, the tea dance emerged as a popular way for younger people to take tea. The tradition continued through World War II. Friends and acquaintances gathered between 5:00 and 6:30 p.m., and table and chairs for tea and snacks were set up around a dance floor. Vestiges of this charming custom remain today in some communities, particularly in the U.K. Why not start a monthly tea dance in your area—perhaps on a Sunday from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m.? Consider arranging it with a dancing school, so those who don’t know ballroom dancing can be introduced. | A tea dance in the 1920s. Photo courtesy of Wetherby Tea Dance. |
Tea In North America
Tea in North America
Tea initially came to America in the mid-1600s via the Dutch, who started a settlement in New Amsterdam. A favorite beverage of women and wealthy colonists, a heavily taxed tea trade flourished between the colony and England. To bolster the Dutch East India Company’s failing financial position, it had convinced the English Parliament to enact the Tea Act, which allowed them to ship tea duty-free directly to the colonists and profit by excluding the colonial merchants. The general notion of taxation without representation brewed great dissent among the colonists.
Political tensions came to a climax with the Boston Tea Party, as colonists protested England’s high taxes by dressing as Native Americans, assaulting East India Company’s trading boats and and dumping tea into Boston Harbor. This act provided an impetus for the American Colonies’ fight for independence in 1776.
Although the American Revolution was a setback for the Dutch East India Company, it managed to survive due to its immense size. But when Richard Twining and thousands of independent tea merchants organized a campaign to reveal the Company’s corrupt practices and pressured the English government to end the monopoly, it eventually crumbled.
The British East India Company; Tea Plantations In India
A Tea Monopoly: The British East India Company
By the early 1700s, the British East India Company had established itself as the dominant trading power and would go on to monopolize the tea trade with China. Trading stations sprang up in India, including hubs in Bombay, Bengal and Madras. The Company, acting as an imperial arm of England, would exercise significant political power in helping to create a wealthy and powerful British Empire. This included not only trading but also the right to annex land, direct troops and dictate British laws.
The British would exploit the tea trade for profit and political power over the next century. However, geopolitical change involving new American colonies abroad and the French and Indian Wars in 1763 began to threaten the British East India Company’s privileged position. In addition, the Company would struggle, burdened by financial mismanagement, corruption and growing tea smuggling operations.
Tea Plantations In India
Interestingly, despite the Company’s dominance, up until the mid 1800s, China remained the sole source of tea for Western demand. Looking to discover the tea-growing secrets and to end their reliance on Chinese tea, the British Tea Committee sent Robert Fortune, an English botanist, on an undercover mission to China. Disguised as a Chinese merchant, he traveled around the country learning about farming and processing techniques. Most importantly, he sent back tea samples and brought back Chinese tea experts who played an important role in enabling British tea planting and experimentation in India.
 | Around 1823, British Army Major Robert Bruce stumbled upon indigenous tea bushes growing in the Northeast region of Assam, India. With this discovery, the British East India Company seized the opportunity to experiment with growing tea in not only Assam but in Darjeeling, a region in Northeastern India at the foot of the Himalayas. An East India Company employee, Dr. Campbell, first planted Darjeeling tea seeds in his garden at Beechwood, Darjeeling. |
| Drying tea leaves. Photo courtesy MightyLeaf.com. |
The planting proved so successful that in 1847 the British government began developing tea estates in the area.
This marked the beginning of a new tea industry in India and an end to reliance on Chinese-grown tea. With tea plantations springing up all over parts of India and the advent of the industrial revolution, the tea trade in India would flourish.
Tea & The Brits
Tea And The Brits
While tea was popular on the Continent, today’s most famous tea drinkers, the British, did not immediately embrace it. Coffee remained the hot drink of choice, enjoyed in coffee houses frequented by men. Tea was introduced to Britain by the Dutch. In 1657, the first shop to sell tea in England opened, run by Thomas Garraway. He advertised it as a medicinal drink, capable of curing almost anything, and charged £6 to £10 for a pound. His coffee house was a center for mercantile transactions, and he sold tea both by the pound, and prepared tea. |  | |
| Catherine of Braganza. Photo courtesy of Wikipedia. |
First sold in apothecaries and a few coffeehouses, the acceptance of tea into British culture was relatively slow. Tea got an important boost when King Charles II married Catherine of Braganza in 1662, daughter of King John IV of Portugal (and for whom the borough of Queens in New York City is named). She practiced temperance; tea was her drink of choice, and it gained social acceptance among the aristocracy as she replaced wine, ale and spirits with tea as the court drink.
In an attempt to please Charles II, the English East India Company brought small gifts of tea from the Continent for Catherine in 1664 and 1666. Other than these gifts, the English East India company did not consider tea to be worth importing from China until 1668, and it was not considered a serious trading commodity for at least another nine years. In 1669, all imports from Holland were prohibited, including tea, granting the English East India Company a monopoly over this commodity. Soon thereafter, the British East India Trade Company (also known as the John Company), which was competing with the Dutch for tea trade, established its first foothold in the East by securing a tea factory in Macao. Tea’s popularity was on the rise in London’s cafes and coffee houses.
Catherine of Braganza’s choice of tea was instrumental in the popularization of tea in Britain. Because tea was introduced primarily through male-frequented coffee houses, there would have been far less social acceptability for women to drink this beverage had it not been for her example. Catherine of Braganza’s use of tea as a court beverage, rather than a medicinal drink, influenced its popularity in literary circles around 1685. By 1686, tea was selling in markets, and the English East India Company considered it to be a part of their regular trade. It was no longer only a specialty item brought back by a ship’s captain for personal use.
Women were first introduced to tea on a wide scale when Lyon’s tea house opened. This provided a place for women, accompanied by a male escort, to go and visit with one another in an acceptable atmosphere. Women were also served tea in the London tea gardens of the early 1730s. Tea gardens were outdoor gardens with flowered walks and music for dancing. They opened in April or May and remained open until August or September, serving tea and other beverages. One had to pay to get in, and the working class was not admitted.
The Modern Steeping Custom Emerges; Tea Entices The West
The Modern Tea Steeping Custom Emerges
Not until the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644) was tea prepared as it is today, by steeping leaves in water. Instead of compressing tea leaves into bricks, the leaves were dried, rolled and then heated in iron woks to dry. The dried leaves were steeped in hot water. The Chinese government further established a hold on tea trade by opening a Bureau of Tea and Horses, regulating interactions on the frontier, where people traded tea for horses. From 1644 to 1911, the Qing dynasty ruled China and eventually abolished duties on tea—a testament to how essential tea had become to everyday life and the economy.
| In the 17th century, a Chinese monk traveling in Japan brought the new rolled form of tea that had replaced powdered tea in China. In the 18th century, a tea merchant in Uji, Kyoto, Nagatani Soen, invented a new Japanese method of steaming, drying and rolling green tea. This tea and style of processing became known as sencha. The custom of drinking sencha tea daily prevails today. |
Tea Entices The West
Although Europeans did not see tea until the 17th century, it appeared earlier elsewhere in the West. Around the 9th century, references in Arab trade documents refer to the process of boiling bitter tea leaves. But it took many more centuries for tea to get to the Continent.
- Marco Polo (1254 to 1324) never specifically mentioned tea in his travel writings about the East. Scholars conjecture that the first Europeans to encounter tea were likely Jesuits living in Beijing who attended the court of the last Ming Emperors.
- The first western reference to tea was in a 1559 volume of travel literature entitled Voyages and Travels, compiled by Giambattaista Ramusio. In it, tea is described as a hot drink with medicinal qualities. In the 1560s, Father Gasper da Cruz mentions tea in a letter home to Portugal from China, and Father Louis Almeda does the same in a letter sent from Japan to Italy.
In spite of such early reports of tea, the product itself was did not arrive in Europe until 1610. Russia discovered tea in 1618 after the Czar received a gift of it from the Ming emperor, although some reports have it arriving earlier via camel caravans that came from China, traveling part of the way on the famous Silk Road.
Tea was not seriously traded until Dutch merchants got involved. In 1610, the first shipments of Japanese and Chinese tea arrived in Europe via ships charted by the Dutch East India Company. The popularity of tea spread to major cities, including Amsterdam, London and Paris. However, its high price limited consumption to Europe’s royal classes and aristocrats. Tea drinking, a novelty at the time, allowed the wealthy to partake of a bit of Eastern adventure during the age of exploration and discovery. Served primarily to men, it was first called cha, from the Cantonese word for tea. The name changed later to tay, or tee, when the British trading post moved from Canton to Amoy, where the word for tea is t’e.
The Evolution Of Tea Culture In China & Japan
The Evolution of Tea Culture in China and Japan
The tea plant probably originated in the region that today comprises Northern India, Tibet and southwest China. Prehistoric man made a relish from the leaves and also used it for medicinal purposes, and the leaves were chewed. Tea plant cultivation in China began about 4,000 years ago. Chinese traders visiting the southern regions returned with tea, which, not surprisingly, became people all over China.
The Spread Of Tea Culture
In the Shijing or The Book of Songs, the earliest collection of Chinese written approximately 1122-256 B.C.E. (the Zhou Dynasty), tea is referred to as tu. It was also called jia and she in the Han Dynasty, 206 B.C.E.-220 C.E. During the Han Dynasty, tu also took on a second pronunciation, cha.
- In the Fujian province on the southeast coast of China (Taiwan lies directly to the east, across the Taiwan Strait), tu became te, and ultimately tea, the word we use. Te is still used in romance languages including French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.
- Jia evolved into cha and chai, the words for tea in Russia and India, respectively. The first example of the word cha in print is in Cha Jing (or Ch’a Ching, “The Classic of Tea”) by Lu Yu, published in 760 C.E.
- The word she evolved to soh, used in Jiangsu Province, and sakh in the Ottoman Empire.
- There are many more names for tea in different European languages.
If all of this seems confusing, think of the different words that can be used instead of cola—carbonated beverage, carbonated drink, mixer, pop, soda, soda pop, soda water, soft drink, tonic, etc.
The Spread Of Tea Culture: The Classic Age Of Tea
By 350 B.C.E., tea drinking was common in China, and many grew the plant in private gardens. Tea was thought of as a medicinal drink in China until late in the sixth century. Tea could be steeped with onion, ginger, orange or peppermint, depending on the medicinal purpose.
Not until the Tang dynasty (618 to 907 C.E.), often referred to as the Classic Age of Tea, did consumption move beyond medicinal purposes to a social beverage. Tea became China’s national drink.
 A brick of compressed tea leaves. | During this time, compressed bricks of tea leaves were first softened by fire and then grated into boiling water. Milk and sugar were never added to tea—this practice was begun by Europeans—although both were available and used in other foods. During this period, the government imposed tea tax—further evidence of tea’s growing popularity. |
In 780 C.E., Chinese merchants commissioned a Buddhist monk, Lu Yu (733 to 804 C.E.), to write the Ch’a Ching treatise (Classic of Tea) to extol the virtues of tea. It included the proper tea making process:
After being plucked on a sunny day, the tea leaves must be baked over an even fire, with no wind. After baking, they should be placed in a paper bag to cool. When completely cold, the leaves can be ground. [Tea was not brewed from whole leaf until the 1300s.] Then spring water should be heated to just under the boiling point and a pinch of salt added. Then bring it to a second boil, and stir only the middle portion of the liquid. Steep the ground tea leaves in this water in each cup individually and drink before it cools. The first and second cups taste the best, and more than four or five cups should not be consumed. |
Lu also describes types of tea, uses and the benefits of drinking it. More importantly, he imbued the writings with a spiritual aesthetic that reflected Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian religious thought. The tea ceremony served as a metaphor for expressing the harmony and simplicity that not only ordered but also streamed throughout the entire universe.
Tea was a drink of the working people and the aristocracy, and was often drunk while entertaining. Making tea was an honor, so only the lord of the house was allowed this privilege. The skill of making tea properly was highly valued in China. An inability to make tea well, and with elegant style and presentation, was tantamount to being viewed as unmannered.
The Romantic Age Of Tea
In the Sung dynasty (960 to 1280 C.E.), known as the Romantic Age of Tea, poetry and artistic references to tea abounded. A precursor to the Japanese tea ceremony to come, the most popular method of preparation involved grinding delicate tea leaves into a green powder in a stone mill and whipping it into hot water with bamboo whisks, creating a frothy drink. Formal tea-tasting parties were held, comparable to modern wine tastings.
 Powdered green matcha tea, which creates a frothy beverage, is used for tea ceremonies. | During this period, Chinese culture significantly influenced and impacted art, politics and religion in the Far East. A Zen Buddhist monk, Saicho, is credited with introducing tea to Japan in the late 8th or early 9th century. While studying in China, Saicho was exposed to tea and returned to Japan with seeds. He began to grow it at his monastery. The monks found that tea enhanced their meditations, and over time small tea plantations sprouted up at secluded monasteries. However, due to the isolation of monasteries, tea did not explode into the mainstream until the thirteenth century. |
At this time in Japan, as in China, people only drank tea in powdered form (matcha). Tea preparation and service became elevated to an art, an extension of the Zen philosophy’s purity of form. The Japanese tea ceremony or chanoyu (literally, “the hot water for the tea”) evolved, in which the making and serving of tea is carried out through an elaborate set of procedures, each movement learned over years of study and requiring great skill and poise.
From Camellia To Clipper: Tracing Tea Through The Ages
You may have consumed thousands of cups of tea in your lifetime, without much thought of the genesis of this healthy brew. Here, a history of tea from ancient to modern times.
The origin of the wild tea plant, Camellia sinensis, has been traced to the area of Assam, India, and possibly also to China. Historically the origin of tea as a medicinalherb
The First Pot Of Tea Ever Brewed
The story of the origin of tea is, like many origins, lost to history. Possibly, ancient man, looking for sources of food, chewed on a leaf and noticed the energizing effects of the caffeine. However, colorful legends abound:
- According to Chinese legend, the story of tea began in 2737 B.C.E. when the legendary Emperor Shen Nong (variously spelled Sh’eng Nung), also a skilled scientist and the father of Chinese medicine, discovered it by accident. In the millennia prior to today’s safe, modern municipal water supplies, water bore many harmful microbes, and was boiled before drinking for safety. While boiling water in the garden (another variation has him out on a journey), a leaf from an overhanging wild tea tree drifted into his pot—inadvertently brewing the first pot of tea. The Emperor found the infused, unusually flavored water delicious, invigorating and refreshing. As a scientist, he further researched the plant and found that tea leaves eliminated numerous toxins from the body. Thus, tea is considered one of the earliest Chinese medicines.
- In an Indian variation, Gautama Buddha is said to have discovered tea when a falling tea leaf happened to land in his cup one day as he sat meditating in a garden.
- India, part of the indigenous tea-growing region, attributes the discovery of tea to Prince Bodhi-Dharma, an Indian saint who founded the Japanese Zen school of Buddhism. In 520 B.C.E., he left India to preach Buddhism in China, vowing to meditate for nine years. Toward the end of his meditation, he fell asleep. Upon awakening, he was so distraught that he cut off his eyelids. A tea plant sprung up from where his bloody eyelids hit the ground to sanctify his sacrifice. (Alternatively, he cut his eyelids off so that he wouldn't fall asleep while meditating, and the first tea plants sprang up from the ground where he flung the severed eyelids. Ouch!)
Overview Of Ceylon Tea
Till 1972, Sri Lanka was known as Ceylon and so, its tea is named as Ceylon tea. The tea in Sri Lanka began its production in 1870 just after the destruction of the coffee plantations due to virus. The plantations of Ceylon tea are found on the highlands having an altitude of 300 to 2500 meters.
The Ceylon tea has a very firm taste, bright colored extract and the concentrated aroma. Though Ceylon tea is more expensive than the tea of Bangladesh and Kenya, but, it is considered to be the best product. As per the last report of the Annual Tea Review conducted regarding the research of the Ceylon tea, due to the decrease in the production of this tea, its cost increased to a great extent.
There are mainly 6 regions for the cultivation of the Ceylon tea. These regions include Gaul which is in the south of island, Ratnapura which is 5 miles away from the capital Colombo, Kandy which is located below the ancient capital, Nuvara Elija which is the most highly located region and has the maximum growth of Ceylon tea, Dambulla which is located to the West from the central mountains and Uva which is to the East from Dambulla. The taste of the Ceylon tea growing in each of these regions is very unique along with the aroma as well as color. The plantation of this tea growing at the height of 1500-1800 feet has different but beautiful color. The tea growing in the middle mountainous regions have saturated aroma. The high mountainous regions Ceylon teas are very popular because of their pleasant gold extract and high quality aroma.
Till 1972, Sri Lanka was known as Ceylon and so, its tea is named as Ceylon tea. The tea in Sri Lanka began its production in 1870 just after the destruction of the coffee plantations due to virus. The plantations of Ceylon tea are found on the highlands having an altitude of 300 to 2500 meters.
Tea Plantation in Sri Lanka - Take a sip, refresh yourself in true Sri Lankan style
Sri Lanka, under the governorship of various colonialist nations throughout history, underwent many transitions in terms of economic growth. Cultivations of various sorts were tried out at different times – to suit the needs of Europeans. Grown first was Cinnamon, and then a thriving Coffee plantation – which contracted a disease and was slowly wiped out.
However never deterred, the island turned to tea. Experiments were conducted through tea plants brought from China, Assam and Calcutta in India and in 1867 James Taylor gave birth to the Tea Industry by starting an estate in Loolecondera in Kandy, in an area of just 19 acres. Soon this trend caught popularity and estates cropped up in the surrounding areas.
With the advent of new technologies and machinery being brought from England to further the growth of this all new industry, Sri Lankan tea grew in favour and popularity.
The flavour of the tea changes according to where it is grown. Nuwara Eliya – one of the principle areas – boasts of a unique flavour in its tea due to its unique geographical situation. Apart from Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Dambulla, and Uda Pussallawela, and hotter climate areas like the Southern Province and Uva Province also produce tea.
There are many kinds of teas that originate from the various tea plantations in Sri Lanka. Of them the Ceylon Black Tea is a speciality with a unique citrusy flavour. The CeylonGreen Tea is a tea that is swiftly gaining in popularity in the market and the Ceylon White tea is a slightly more expensive brand with its honey and cinnamon flavouring.
Graded according to the geographical location it’s grown in, Sri Lanka is the world’s 4th largest tea producer and its tea has been in high demand internationally.
If you are undertaking Sri Lanka travel, then a wonderful aromatic fresh cup of tea blended in the high or low lands of Sri Lanka is a must for an experience that is world class. Find out more about Sri Lanka and its beautiful attractions when you visit Truly Sri Lanka, a site dedicated to providing up to date information about this paradise isle.
Sunday, January 31, 2010
Coffee Industry
The coffee plant is a woody perennial evergreen belonging to the Rubiaceae family. There are two types of coffee, arabica (Coffea arabica ) and robusta (Coffea canephora ). Arabica, which accounts for about two-thirds of global output, is grown at high altitudes in Latin America and northeastern Africa. It has more aroma and less caffeine than robusta, which is grown in humid areas at low altitudes in Asia and western and southern sub-Saharan Africa. The coffee plant can grow up to 10 meters high, but it is usually kept at about 3 meters. It takes two to three years for the coffee plant to produce cherries. Scientific evidence indicates that arabica is indigenous to Ethiopia, while robusta is indigenous to Uganda. It appears that coffee was produced in Ethiopia at a larger scale and then spread to other parts of Africa. Coffee cultivation was introduced to Java by Dutch traders in 1699. A few years later the French introduced coffee to Martinique. Coffee was first cultivated in Brazil in 1727. Although the origins of the coffee drink are unknown, the usefulness of coffee beans was probably recognized as early as 1000 CE by Arab traders who chewed coffee beans in order to suppress their appetite and stay awake, thus helping them cross large distances in the desert. The world’s first coffee shop reportedly opened five centuries later in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). Coffee was introduced to the West by Italian traders in the early seventeenth century, with the first coffee shops opening in London and Paris later in that century. The processing of coffee involves several steps. After harvesting, the skin of the cherry is removed, and the bean is cleaned to become a green bean, the internationally traded commodity. The green beans are roasted, giving them a dark brown color. Following the grinding of roasted beans, consumers use various brewing techniques to convert the ground beans into a beverage. In Europe, most coffee is consumed in espresso-like form, whereas in North America coffee is mostly consumed in drip form (although that practice has been changing since the beginning of the “Starbucks revolution” during the 1990s). In Asia, most people drink instant coffee. Scandinavian countries lead the world with per capita consumption of almost 10 kilograms of coffee per year from 2000 to 2005. The European Union average during this period was 5.0 kilograms, followed by the United States (4.1 kilograms), and Japan (3.2 kilograms), according to U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates (USDA 2006). Most tropical countries produce coffee. Latin America accounts for 60 percent of global output, followed by Asia (24%) and Africa (16%). From 2001 to 2006, more than half of world output was produced in three countries: Brazil (35%), Vietnam (11%), and Colombia (10%). Other significant producers were Indonesia (5%) and Ethiopia, India, and Mexico (4% each). Coffee in some countries, notably Brazil, is produced on large farms with modern equipment, including irrigation, tractors, and even coffee harvesters. In other regions, especially Central America, Africa, and Asia, coffee is produced by smallholders. In some Africa countries, smallholders own as little as one-quarter of a hectare of land. In this setting, the key input is labor and, to a limited extent, chemicals. In some East African countries there are also coffee estates that use large numbers of permanent workers. More than 80 percent of coffee is traded internationally and consumed mainly by high-income countries. In some years, coffee is the second most-traded commodity after crude oil, generating about $15 billion in export revenue. The United States accounts for about 18 percent of global consumption, followed by Brazil (13%), Germany (9%), Japan (6%), and France and Italy (5% each). Coffee is traded in green bean form. Although there are numerous coffee trading companies, most coffee trade is handled by five or six large multinationals. Coffee prices are determined in futures exchanges. Highly-liquid coffee futures contracts are traded at the New York Board of Trade for arabica and at the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange for robusta. Less-liquid contracts are traded at the Commodity Exchanges of São Paulo, Singapore, and Bangalore. Coffee prices are generally highly volatile (much more so than other commodity prices). This volatility reflects the fact that Brazil, the dominant supplier, suffers occasional frosts, thus subjecting its coffee output to considerable fluctuations. Hedge funds also play a role in price volatility, especially in the short term. Beginning in 2000, coffee experienced one of the most dramatic price declines in the history of the industry (an episode referred to as the coffee crisis ). In October 2001 arabica averaged $1.24 per kilogram, a nine-year low, while in January 2002 robusta dropped to $0.50 per kilogram (the lowest nominal level since the price of $0.49 per kilogram set in May 1965). The main factor behind the price collapse was oversupply, especially in Brazil, which averaged a record output of thirty-three million bags of coffee during the previous four seasons, and in Vietnam, which emerged as the dominant robusta producer, overtaking Colombia as the world’s second-largest coffee producer. The oversupply, caused by lower-cost producers, led some to argue, convincingly, that the coffee crisis was a market-driven outcome of the coffee industry adjusting to new global market realities (Lindsey 2003). The coffee market has been subject to considerable policy interventions both at national and international levels. Takamasa Akiyama (2001) reported that only fifteen of the world’s fifty-one coffee-producing countries had private marketing systems in 1985. Twenty-five countries sold coffee through state-owned enterprises, while another eleven had mixed state- and private-sector marketing bodies. By 2007 the coffee sectors of most countries were operating with private-sector marketing arrangements. The coffee market has also been subject to a series of coffee agreements administered by the International Coffee Organization (ICO), which was established in 1962 to stabilize coffee prices by dictating how much coffee each producer could export. Research has shown that coffee prices were higher under the ICO than they would have been otherwise (Gilbert 1995). There were likely political reasons behind the ICO’s supply measures. According to Robert Bates (1997), the United States, a powerful ICO member, used the organization during the 1960s and 1970s to increase the income of Central American coffee-producing countries in the hope that this action would contain the spread of communism in the region. Similarly, western European countries viewed ICO-induced high coffee prices as a way to provide aid to their former African colonies. Most coffee-producing countries (accounting for 90 percent of global output) and almost all developed coffee-consuming countries were members of the ICO (interestingly, communist countries, which were not members of the ICO, bought coffee under free trading arrangements). The last international coffee agreement was effective from September 1980 to July 1989, after which the ICO was abandoned. A more recent attempt to regulate supplies through another organization, the Association of Coffee Producing Countries, failed. In the absence of new international initiatives or domestic policies by dominant producers, the outlook for the coffee market depends entirely on supply-and-demand forces. Vietnam’s emergence as a major robusta producer is likely to influence robusta prices for many years. In 1980 Vietnam produced 140,000 60-kilogram bags of coffee—less than 0.2 percent of world production. In 2001 Vietnam exceeded 13.3 million bags—more than 11.4 percent of world production. Vietnam is a low-cost producer, and as of 2007 its coffee trees were very young and had yet to reach maximum yields. Brazil has been able to maintain unprecedented output levels, averaging more than 39 million bags during 2003-2006. Extensive mechanization of coffee harvesting has lowered production costs, while better varieties with higher yields have been developed and adopted. Shifting production north, away from frost-prone areas in the south, has reduced the likelihood of weather-related supply disruptions. And the extensive use of irrigation has stabilized and sustained yields. On the demand side, the coffee industry faces growing competition from the soft drink industry. For example, the 1970 annual per capita consumption of soft drinks in the United States was 86 liters; by 1999, annual per capita consumption had exceeded 200 liters, according to U.S. Department of Agriculture data. Numerous other factors are likely to influence the coffee industry’s long-term outlook. First, new technologies enable roasters to eliminate the harsh taste of some coffees, essentially achieving a higher level of quality from lower-quality beans. Second, roasters have been more flexible in their ability to make short-term switches between coffee types, implying that the premia of certain types of coffee cannot be retained for long. Third, a small segment of the market has emerged that focuses on product differentiation, such as organic, gourmet, and shade coffee. The implication of these developments is that the demand outlook is likely to differ from one coffee producer to another. Specifically, any expansion in coffee demand is likely to occur at the two ends of the spectrum: lower-quality beans (reflecting improved technology) and specialty coffees (reflecting expansion to niche markets). Several new patterns have emerged in coffee promotion and distribution as well. Coffee promotion used to take the form of national brands, represented by the familiar Juan Valdez campaign of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia. Other types of promotions were undertaken by coffee-trading companies, such as Maxwell House’s “Good to the Last Drop” campaign. The market and trade setting has shifted considerably since the mid-1980s. In 2007 as much as 10 percent of coffee is branded according to such characteristics as subnational origin (e.g., Kilimanjaro coffee rather than Tanzanian coffee, or Harare coffee rather than Ethiopian coffee); social aspects (e.g., fair trade coffee, which ensures a minimum price to growers); and organic, shade, or bird-friendly production (which ensures compliance with certain environmental criteria). A second emerging pattern is the development of direct relationships between major coffee retailers, such as Starbucks, and producer organizations that can ensure that the coffee these retailers sell adheres to certain social criteria. Initially, it was believed that, in addition to offering more choices to consumers, these new marketing and branding mechanisms would provide a boost to the income of small coffee growers. While this was the case initially, research has shown that the premia received by coffee growers have declined and are likely to shrink even more as increasing numbers of producers join the specialty coffee marketing channels (Kilian et al. 2006). SEE ALSO Addiction; Agricultural Industry; Colonialism Akiyama, Takamasa. 2001. Coffee Market Liberalization since 1990. InCommodity Market Reforms: Lessons of Two Decades, eds. Takamasa Akiyama, John Baffes, Donald Larson, and Panos Varangis, 83-120. Washington, DC: World Bank. Baffes, John, Bryan Lewin, and Panos Varangis. 2005. Coffee: Market Setting and Policies. In Global Agricultural Trade and Developing Countries, eds. M. Ataman Aksoy and John C. Beghin, 297-310. Washington, DC: World Bank. Bates, Robert H. 1997. Open-Economy Politics: The Political Economy of the World Coffee Trade. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Gilbert, Christopher L. 1995. International Commodity Control: Retrospect and Prospect. Policy Research Working Paper 1545. Washington, DC: World Bank, International Economics Dept., Commodity Policy and Analysis Unit. Kilian, Bernard, Connie Jones, Lawrence Pratt, and Andrès Villalobos. 2006. Is Sustainable Agriculture a Viable Strategy to Improve Farm Income in Central America? A Case Study on Coffee. Journal of Business Research 59 (3): 322-330.PRODUCTION, TRADE, AND PRICES
THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INDUSTRY’S LONG-TERM OUTLOOK
BIBLIOGRAPHY